What are the historical perspectives and rationale for developing the field of science?

Research Background

The contemporary social, political, and economic sectors of modern society highly rely on the implications of science, technological advancements, and scientific rationale applied for solving varied conventional tasks and problems (Cohen, 2021). The history and philosophy of science (HPS) facilitate understanding of the historical evolution of scientific reasoning and the applications of science in revealing the philosophical truth within observable and non-observable events within the natural world. In principle, the history of science and technology (HST) is primarily concerned with understanding the scientific natural world and how the application of technology has evolved over millenniums, seeking to manipulate the natural world for human benefit (Grant, 2017). Fundamentally, the philosophy of science explores the underlying foundations, techniques, and implications of science, within contemporary society. While the philosophy of science is concerned with studying the fundamental nature of existence and reality, the central philosophical questions focus on establishing the relevance of scientific theories, reliability, and the ultimate purpose of science within society.

The history of science spans the development of science from ancient times to the present, covering natural, formal, and social science. Cohen (2021) and Lindberg (2010) argue that the earliest scientific practices are traced to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt between 3000 and 2000 BCE. According to Grant (2017a), significant fields of science that originated from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia included advances in Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics. Principe (2011) and Lindberg (2017) agree that the influence of scientific advancements in Egypt and Mesopotamia spread throughout the world through explorers, mainly sailors who travelled across the globe by sea. In support of the sentiments, Grant (2017) and Grant (2017b) hold that mathematics, medicine, and astronomy established in Egypt influenced Greek philosophy and classical antiquity. For instance, Hendrix (2011) noted that Greek adopted science to explain events in the physical world. Similarly, Lightman (2011) established that science was adopted by the Greeks to explain natural occurrences. Therefore, science was aimed at explaining natural causes and their respective consequences to help people understand the physical world.

Nonetheless, the Greek scientific conceptions of the world deteriorated in Latin-speaking countries in Western Europe and only thrived in the Byzantine Empire. However, studies demonstrate that the Greek Hellenistic views about the world further spread to the Middle –East, increasing the influence of the Egyptian scientific concepts. Zalta (2012) and Gutas (2012) noted that translation of reek texts facilitated the spread of their scientific concepts and ideas to Arabs in the Islamic Golden Age. According to Lightman (2011) and Kuhn (2014), the translation of Greek texts fostered the assimilation of Islamic inquiries and Greek science into Western Europe between the 10th and 13th centuries, reviving natural philosophy education in the West. From the viewpoints, adoption and assimilation of Greek science in the West promoted a philosophical understanding of the world. Science was therefore integrated into philosophy to explain and understand the natural world.

Philosophy further transitioned to include pure science. Cahan (2013) and Singer (2013) agree that natural philosophy transformed during the scientific revolution to encompass new ideas and concepts following discoveries in Europe in the 16th to the 17th century. According to Cahan (2013), innovations necessitated a change in approaches to explaining and understanding world phenomena. Similarly, Zalta (2012) and Kuhn (2014) argue that discoveries in Europe necessitated abandoning the Greek conceptions and traditional norms engraved in natural philosophy. Therefore, the need for new approaches to explaining world phenomena might have suggested the need for science. Accordingly, science aimed to establish new approaches to understanding the world and explaining world phenomena. Nonetheless, the studies do not directly point to specific required changes and their validity during the period. For instance, no reference is made to significant aspects of philosophy changed by the Europeans after abandoning the Greek traditions. Irrespective, the studies adequately proved that need for a new approach to understanding the world necessitated the abandonment of the Greek natural philosophy.

During the scientific revolution, more mechanistic science emerged. The new science that emerged was founded on open mechanical and mathematical elements. According to Gal (2021), the new science that emerged during the scientific revolution was integrated to make the scientific method with a different worldview perspective. For instance, Singer (2013) and Bowler (2020) argue that the new science focused on the mobility of people and making work easier, rendering it mechanistic. From this perspective, the new science emphasised new approaches to accomplishing basic tasks and explaining concepts about the mechanical aspects of the world.

Subsequent scientific revolutions were directly linked to solving human problems. Krige (2019) and Wolf (2019) established that further advancements in science aimed to ease human life. According to Gal (2021), the chemical revolution in the 18th century helped develop new quantitative methods, including measurements and ratings in chemistry. Further advancements in science during the 19th century sought to provide solutions to energy problems, the age of the earth, the evolution of humans, and the underlying relationships in ecosystems (Kuhn, 2014). In particular, storage and conservation of energy emerged during the 19th century as innovators strived to establish reliable energy sources and energy conservation strategies. All the scientific perspectives suggest that science aims to solve human problems by explaining the different world phenomena, inter-relationships, and effects on human life.

Further advancements in science were noted by Delbourgo (2019), and Gal (2021) reported other advancements in science, which cited the need for understanding human life and physics as the underlying aim of science. Krige (2019) put forward those discoveries in genetics and physics in the 20th century were fundamental in explaining human life and the respective techniques they could use for their survival. Notably, molecular biology and particulate physics were vital in understanding the human body, diseases, and their impacts on human life. Notably, genetic science was essential in explaining the differences in humans, animals, and plants to distinguish their core characteristics and relationships. Bowler (2020) and Wolf (2019) agree that onset of extensive scientific research that increased focus on unlimited world exploration and scientific discovery to build human resilience against imminent life challenges. From the historical perspective, science was meant to provide an understanding of the world and provide solutions to various challenges humans face.

Research Rationale

While the research focuses on exploring the aims of scientific developments, the need to understand the implications of scientific development significantly justifies the review of history and philosophy of science. Fundamentally, the current study follows the rapid changes in science and technology, as well as the associated implications of scientific developments. The rationale adopted for underpinning the study concerns with sufficiently review the historical changes in the development of scientific knowledge and the philosophical perspective drawn for explaining the aims of science. Greece and Chinese scientific developments are adopted as the foundation for the current study’s focus on exploring the history and aims of science, considering the influence of early Greek and Chinese practice-oriented views of science on the development of scientific knowledge (Guo and Hadder, 2020). Ibe (2021) established that ancient science was developed with the aims of explaining existing phenomenon, as well as solving the social, physical and economic problems manifesting within the human society. The primary aims of developing science within Ancient Greek revolved around the arching need for scholars and societies to explain mysteries and occurrences within the natural world. In essence, ancient Greek science accounts for the scientific process and approach adopted by scientists throughout the evolution of scientific practice evidences in Greek mathematics and geometry. The research’s rationale for adopting multiple secondary sources on Greek and China scientific allows for the resourceful exploration of ancient aims of developing science, as depicted within the scientific practice and development across ancient Greek and China.

Philosophical arguments on the aims of developing science emphasize on the application of systematic scientific knowledge for solving problems caused by the natural world and human societies. Despite the development of science with the aim of addressing problems within the natural world (Ibex, 2021), both negative and positive implications of science necessitate the need to explore how science evolved and the aims of scientific practice. For instance, genetic engineering and chemical engineering are connected to creating hazardous specifies and substances that cause ailments like cancer (Boice et al., 2022). The chemistry behind nuclear weapons is associated with genetic modification, the mainly rapid growth of tumours in humans and animals (Vaiserman et al., 2018). Genetic engineering is related to creating disease-causing micro-organisms, rendering the field of science a threat to human life. While Joy (2020) and Beiter (2019) argue that science was aimed at improving human beings’ overall quality of life, the most recent inventions and innovations are controversial, necessitating exploration of the historical perspective of the aims of science. Therefore, the current study seeks to establish the history and aims of science from ancient times until today.

Research Aim

The study aims to examine the history and aims of science. The study focuses on the different perspectives of science and the factors that necessitated advancements in science from ancient times until today.

Research Objectives

  1. To establish the historical changes in science.
  2. To explore the aims of development science practice and scientific knowledge in ancient Greek and China.
  3. To establish the different implications of science on human life and technology.

Research Question

  1. What are the historical perspectives and rationale for developing the field of science?
  2. What are the historical changes in science since development of scientific practice in ancient Greek and China?