CheckPoint
Human Virtues and Character Strengths
Examine one human virtue and the associated character strengths that are important to you, as listed in Ch. 10 of Positive Psychology.
Select someone who you know or is a public figure who you feel encompasses at least one of these virtues.
Discuss why this virtue is important to you. How does the person you selected encompass this virtue and the associated character strengths?
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Think of someone you hold in high regard and look up to as a model for yourself and others.Perhaps a friend, relative, or a person from history or contemporary society comes tomind. Think about this individual?s personal qualities and how you might describe thebasis of your admiration to another person. Make a mental list of 4 or 5 qualities that make thisperson deserving of your respect. Now compare your list to the positive traits discussed inChapter 9. How many of them overlap? Did your list include extraversion, cheerfulness, selfesteem,or optimism? What traits on your list are not in Chapter 9? Did you include any of thefollowing qualities: integrity, courage, honesty, kindness, religious conviction, wisdom, fairness,or modesty? The point here, affirmed by how we think about people we respect, is that adescription of positive human traits would be incomplete without including personal qualitiesCHAPTER OUTLINEDeveloping a Classification of Human VirtuesMeasuring Strengths of CharacterWisdom as a Foundational Strength and VirtueWhat is Wisdom?Theories of WisdomBalance TheoryWisdom as Expert Knowledge in the Conduct of LifeWisdom in Action: The SOC Model of Effective Life ManagementFocus on Theory: Wisdom or Self-control as Master Virtues?Transcendence: Religion and SpiritualityThe Search for MeaningReligion and Spirituality: The Diversity of ViewsDefining Religion and SpiritualityReligion/Spirituality and Well-BeingReligious OrientationIntrinsic and Extrinsic Religious OrientationQuest Religious OrientationAttachment Theory and Relationship to GodStyles of Religious Coping?Explaining Religion versus Explaining Religion Away?Religion and VirtueForgivenessGratitudeFocus on Research: Increasing Well-Being by Counting Your Blessings10Virtue and Strengthsof Character207ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.208 Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of Characterjudged as positive because they are ?good? inmoral and ethical terms. Clearly, we may admirepeople who are outgoing, upbeat, and positiveabout the future. But just as clearly, and perhaps at adeeper level, we also admire individuals who showstrengths of character that reflect virtuous qualities likeintegrity, kindness, and compassion. In short, virtueand character strengths belong on a list of positivehuman traits.The traits reviewed in Chapter 9 were evaluatedas positive because of their benefits to individualwell-being?specifically health, happiness, andemotional well-being. Virtuous behavior may alsoincrease our life satisfaction and make life moremeaningful and healthy. However, virtue is also considereda positive trait independent of any benefit or?pay-off? to the individual. Virtue is positivelyregarded in its own right because of its connection toreligious and secular mores and its value to society.A consideration of virtue and character strengths providesan additional way to think about the meaningof ?positive.? In this chapter, we will first review arecent attempt to provide a comprehensive classificationof character strengths and virtues. Then, we willfocus on two foundational virtues (wisdom andreligion) in more detail by examining how they contributeto well-being and a life well-lived.DEVELOPING A CLASSIFICATIONOF HUMAN VIRTUESFor a considerable time in psychology?s history,virtue was not considered an appropriate constructfor scientific investigation. The study of virtue wasthought to be too easily tainted and biased by themoral beliefs of researchers and the prevailing culturalmores of the day (Tjeltveit, 2003). Many psychologistsbelieved that science should provide onlyobjective facts about how people act. Questionsabout how people should conduct themselves?thatis, whether their actions were good, bad, moral, orimmoral?were left for philosophers and theologiansto decide. However, a renewed interest incharacter strengths has begun to emerge as morepsychologists have come to realize that a completeaccount of human behavior needs to include themoral dimension of people?s lives (Fowers &Tjeltveit, 2003). Recent events from the Enron scandalto the influence-peddling of lobbyist JackAbramoff have reinforced the importance of ethicalbehavior. People?s anger and outrage at these sortsof improprieties stem primarily from moral considerations.In short, people lead moral lives in the senseof evaluating themselves and others according tomoral criteria.Describing the features of a life well-lived is acentral theme of positive psychology. Because themeaning of a good person and a good life are intimatelyconnected to virtue, positive psychology hasgiven virtue particular prominence. This is mostapparent in a recent collaborative research project(the Values in Action Project, Peterson & Seligman,2004) that had the lofty goal of developing a classificationof character strengths and virtues that wouldparallel the Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders (DSM), developed by theAmerican Psychiatric Association (2000). The DSMprovides a classification of mental disorders and anextensive ?language? for describing human psychologicalweaknesses and pathologies. Authors of theValues in Action Project (VIA) hoped to create acomprehensive classification system similar to theDSM, but one that was focused on human strengthsrather than weaknesses. They also hoped to providea language describing positive human qualities thatdefined a healthy person living a good life. Putanother way, the DSM describes aspects of life?below zero? (with ?zero? representing the thresholddividing mental health from emotional illness). Onegoal of the VIA was to describe life ?above zero?(i.e., to identify the traits that define emotionalhealth and strength). This goal is consistent withpositive psychology?s emphasis on restoring balanceto the field, in place of psychology?s historic focuson problematic human behaviors.Developing a classification of characterstrengths is a daunting task. Virtue and characterare obviously complex topics. What, exactly, is ahuman virtue or character strength? Do people havea common understanding of traits that qualify asvirtuous? Getting answers to these questions wasone of the major purposes of the VIA. The VIA,coordinated by Christopher Peterson and MartinSeligman (2004), brought together a group ofresearchers who sought to describe those strengthsof character that were most prominent across historyand culture. Is there a common set of humanqualities universally regarded as positive virtues? Alist of possible ?candidates? was generated by examiningvirtues and strengths described in a variety ofphilosophic, religious, and cultural traditions. Thislist included virtues described in major religionsISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of Character 209and philosophies (e.g., Confucianism, Buddhism,Hinduism, Judeo-Christianity, and ancient Greekphilosophy), the works of famous historical figures(e.g., Benjamin Franklin), and in popular culture(e.g., Boy and Girl Scout Guides, Hallmark greetingcards, popular songs, Saturday Evening Post coversby Normal Rockwell).From a long list of candidates, 24 characterstrengths were selected and organized around 6virtues. The 6 virtues?wisdom, courage, humanity,justice, temperance, and transcendence?wereselected because they appear to be universalacross history and across societies. They representmoral virtues as defined by most religions and ethicalphilosophies. Peterson and Seligman regardthese virtues as core defining features of goodcharacter. Each virtue is defined by a set of characterstrengths that represent the ingredients, expressions,and potential means of developing thevirtue. For example, temperance as a virtue refersto people?s strength in avoiding excesses. Theingredients and expressions of temperance wouldinclude self-control, gratitude toward others,humility, prudent decision-making, and the abilityto forgive the transgressions of self and others.Developing this virtue would involve efforts toexert more self-control, become more humble andless self-aggrandizing, and more grateful and forgivingin relationships with others.Character strengths were selected by applyinga set of criteria to the list of strengths identified inthe first phase of the project. A sample of the set ofcriteria used is shown in Table 10.1. To be includedin the final classification, a character strength had tomeet all or nearly all of these criteria.Half of the strengths selected met the entire setof criteria. The other half did not. As Seligman andPeterson note, disagreements can arise about theinclusion of one or another of the strengths, the placementof a given strength under a particular virtue, andwhether some other important strength was omitted.However, taken in total, this classification system?hangs together? as a reasonably coherent first effortat describing what may be universally regarded ashuman strengths and virtues. The final classification ofstrengths and virtues is described in Table 10.2. For acomplete description of the selection criteria, previousclassification models, and literature reviews detailingwhat is known about each character strength, seePeterson and Seligman?s Character Strengths andVirtues: A Handbook and Classification (2004).Wisdom and KnowledgeAs a virtue, wisdom refers to a general intellectualstrength involving the development and use ofknowledge. Wisdom does not necessarily followfrom a formal education or a high IQ score. Wisdomrefers to a more practical intelligence and good judgmentbased on learning life?s lessons?perhapsthrough hardships. A wise person puts things in theproper perspective and avoids the pitfalls of narrowlyfocused and self-interested understandings. Wisdommeans being able to offer good counsel to othersabout how to live and how to understand and dealwith life?s challenges, uncertainties, and choices.CourageCourage is the emotional strength to overcome fearin the face of opposition and adversity. Courage isTABLE 10.1 Criteria for selecting character strengthsRegarded as a valued moral quality in and of itself, whether or not it led to concrete benefits.Contributes to personal fulfillment in the sense of enhancing personal expressiveness, meaningfulness, satisfaction,and happiness.Constitutes a stable individual difference trait for which reliable measures had been previously developed.Be distinctive and not overlap with other strengths.Have an opposite that was clearly negative (e.g., the opposite of courage is cowardice).Enhances rather than diminishes other people when expressed (i.e., the trait must evoke admiration or respect ratherthan envy, inferiority, or lowered self-evaluation).Be the focus of institutional efforts (e.g., education, churches) to promote its development.ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.210 Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of CharacterTABLE 10.2 Classification of virtues and character strengthsI. Wisdom and Knowledge?cognitive strengths that entail the acquisition and use of knowledge.Defining Strengths1. Creativity?thinking of novel and productive ways to do things2. Curiosity?taking an interest in all ongoing experience3. Open-mindedness?thinking things through and from all sides4. Love of learning?mastering new skills, topics, and bodies of knowledge5. Perspective?being able to provide wise counsel to othersII. Courage?emotional strengths that involve exercise of will in the face of opposition, external or internal.Defining Strengths6. Authenticity?speaking the truth and presenting yourself in a genuine way7. Bravery?not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain8. Persistence?finishing what one starts despite obstacles along the way9. Zest?approaching life with excitement and energyIII. Humanity?interpersonal strengths that involve ?tending and befriending? others.Defining Strengths10. Kindness?doing favors and good deeds for others11. Love?valuing close relations with others12. Social intelligence?being aware of the motives and feelings of self and othersIV. Justice?civic strengths that underlie healthy community life.Defining Strengths13. Fairness?treating all people the same according to notions of fairness and justice14. Leadership?organizing group activities and seeing that they happen15. Teamwork?working well as member of a group or teamV. Temperance?strengths that protect against excess.Defining Strengths16. Forgiveness?forgiving those who have done wrong17. Modesty?letting one?s accomplishments speak for themselves18. Prudence?being careful about one?s choices; not saying or doing things that might be later regretted19. Self-regulation?regulating what one feels and doesVI. Transcendence?strengths that forge connections to the larger universe and providing meaning.Defining Strengths20. Appreciation of beauty and excellence?noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence, and/or skilled performancein all domains of life21. Gratitude?being aware of and thankful for good things that happen22. Hope?expecting the best and working to achieve it23. Humor?liking to laugh and tease; bringing smiles to other people24. Religiousness/Spirituality?having coherent beliefs about the higher purposes and meaning of lifeSource: Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation ofinterventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410?421. Copyright American Psychological Association. Adapted and reprinted withpermission.ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of Character 211exemplified in confronting and accepting one?s owndeath; dealing with a debilitating illness or disease;honestly confronting one?s own limitations, weaknesses,or bad habits; and standing up for one?sconvictions, despite the possibility of negative consequences(e.g., chastisement by others).HumanityHumanity refers to our capacity for sympathy, empathy,compassion, and love in our relationships withothers. Humanity is the basis for nurturing and caringrelationships focused on another?s needs ratherthan one?s own needs and interests. Humanity isexpressed in our willingness to help others in need,to be kind, to be generous, and to respect the feelingsand values of others.JusticeJustice is an essential ingredient in healthy societies,communities, and relationships with others. Thisvirtue is shown when people are fair mindedand even-handed rather than being biased by selfinterest.Justice also includes strengths that contributeto community well-being, such as workingcooperatively with others and taking the initiative todevelop and follow through on goals and projects.TemperanceTemperance is the strength to control excesses andrestrain impulses that may harm the self and others. Itexpresses the idea of ?willpower? in the face of temptations.Temptations and the benefits of restraintmight be focused on eating; drinking; smoking;expressing of anger, hatred, or arrogance toward others;or excessive self-promotion at the expense ofothers. Chapter 8 described some of the psychologicalprocesses involved in self-control and selfdirectedactions that are relevant to temperance.Temperance is a kind of ongoing self-awareness andself-discipline that affirms the ?look before you leap?dictum of everyday wisdom. Temperance alsoinvolves the ability to let go and forgive the indiscretionsand hurtful actions of others.TranscendenceTo transcend means to go beyond or rise above theordinary and the everyday. Transcendent thinkinglifts us out of the usual concrete preoccupations ofdaily life and out of an individualized sense of self byproviding a broader view of the world and the universe.Transcendence puts things in perspective andkeeps us from worrying about or striving for thingsthat don?t really matter. Religion and spirituality arethe clearest examples of transcendence because theyinvolve a belief in a higher power and a greater purposefor life. Whatever their various forms, transcendentbeliefs connect the individual to a moreencompassing understanding and a deeper meaningof life. The character strength of religiousness clearlyfits the virtue of transcendence.The other strengths listed under transcendencemay not seem to fit so well. Peterson and Seligman(2004) believe that the common theme here is providingopportunities to appreciate and develop a biggerpicture of the world that may provide a more enduringand satisfying understanding and purpose for life.?Appreciation of beauty is a strength that connectssomeone to excellence. Gratitude connects someonedirectly to goodness. Hope connects someone directlyto the dreamed-of future? (Peterson & Seligman, 2004,p. 519). Humor, they admit, seems a bit of stretch asan expression of transcendence. However, as theypoint out, humor keeps us from taking our selves andour virtues too seriously. It reminds us to ?lighten up.?Laughter holds nothing sacred and can cut througheverything from self-righteousness to passionate conflictsover important issues. On a daily basis, Jay Lenoand David Letterman create humor out of pain andtragedy, from political scandals to the war in Iraq.Perhaps humor serves a protective function by connectingus directly to life?s absurdities and getting usto laugh at them.Measuring Strengths of CharacterA major goal of the VIA project was the developmentof measures for each of the 24 strengths ofcharacter. Based on existing knowledge and assessmentinstruments for each of the strengths, a 240-item self-report questionnaire was created. Tenitems were used to assess each character strength.For example, forgiveness is measured by items suchas, ?I always allow others to leave their mistakes inthe past and make a fresh start.? Kindness is measuredby items like, ?I?m never too busy to help afriend.? Curiosity is measured through items such as,?I am never bored.? Items like, ?I always keep mypromises? measure integrity (Peterson & Seligman,2004, pp. 629?630). Respondents rate their degreeof endorsement on a scale from 1 (very unlike me)ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.212 Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of Characterto 5 (very much like me). Rating summaries producea profile of an individual?s relative standing on eachof the 24 character strengths. The entire VIA inventoryof strengths takes 30 to 40 minutes to complete.You can take the VIA inventory of strengths onlineat www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/. Thereare several questionnaires on this site. You want toselect the VIA Signature Strengths Questionnaire,which gives you a character strength profile andidentifies your top five strengths, called ?signature?strengths. You will need to log on to the site, providesome basic information, and create a passwordto take the test and have your responses scored.Although still a work in progress, the VIAStrengths Inventory has shown good internal consistencyand test?retest reliability. Individual self-ratingshave been validated against ratings by informedobservers. A youth version of the VIA inventory hasalso been developed and tested (see Peterson &Seligman, 2004). The inventory has been taken byover 350,000 people of all ages and backgrounds, representing50 countries and all 50 U.S. states (Peterson,2006; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Seligman, Steen,Park, & Peterson, 2005).Analysis of character-strength profiles in relationto respondents? backgrounds revealed several interestingpatterns. People from around the world show substantialagreement regarding the strengths rated as?most like me.? The most commonly endorsed characterstrengths in 50 countries were fairness, kindness,authenticity, gratitude, and open-mindedness. Theleast frequently endorsed strengths were prudence,self-regulation, and modesty. The correlations ofstrength rankings across nations were typically in the0.80 range. Despite widely different cultures, religions,and ethnic backgrounds, people seem to sharea common understanding of character strengths andvirtues. Within the United States, the same pattern ofrankings was apparent with the exception of religiousness,which was stronger in the southern states.Interestingly, there was less agreement inrankings between U.S. teenagers and U.S. adultsthan among adults from different countries.American adolescents rated hope, teamwork, andzest as ?most like me,? while American adults gavehigher endorsements to authenticity, appreciation ofbeauty, leadership, and open-mindedness.Character strengths related to relationships(love) and positive emotions (e.g., zest, hope, andgratitude) were more strongly related to measures oflife satisfaction than were more intellectual-cognitivestrengths (e.g., curiosity and love of learning).?Strengths of the heart,? as Peterson and Seligmancall them (experiences such as kindness, love, andgratitude), contribute the most to our individualhappiness.Profiles of character strength also fit with thematching hypothesis discussed in Chapter 7. Peoplewere asked to think about personal experiencesinvolving their most rewarding and fulfilling jobsand hobbies, their ?truest? love, and their bestfriends. The experiences they chose as the ?mostsatisfying (they) had ever had? were those thatmatched their character strengths. For example,people strong in kindness enjoyed working as mentorsfor others. Those with curiosity as strength valuedand enjoyed romantic partners who wereadventuresome risk-takers.Finally, factor analysis revealed a five-factordimensional structure of the 24 character strengthsthat was similar (but not identical) to the originalorganization of strengths around the six virtues.The five factors were identified as strengths relatingto restraint (e.g., humility, prudence, andmercy), intelligence (e.g., creativity and curiosity),relationships (e.g., love and kindness), emotions(e.g., bravery, hope, and self-regulation), andreligion (e.g., spirituality and gratitude). Petersonand Seligman acknowledge the tentative nature ofthe organization of character strengths around thesix core virtues. Subsequent research will undoubtedlyrefine the virtue categories and the strengthsthat define them. For example, a recent studyexamining the factor structure of 42 positive charactertraits, including those from the VIA project,found only a partial overlap with the VIA six-virtuemodel (Haslam, Bain, & Neal, 2004). Results suggestedthat categories of self-control, love, wisdom,drive, and vivacity may better capture how peoplethink about and organize character strengths.Whatever the final organization, the VIA projecthas provided a useful starting point, by proposinga detailed list of character strengths and strong evidencefor their universality across time and culture.In the remainder of this chapter, we willreview research and theory related to the virtues ofwisdom and transcendence. Chapter 11 is focusedon the virtue of love. Literature relevant to otherstrengths has been discussed in previous chapters asdescribed below. Peterson and Seligman (2004) providea comprehensive review of research and theoryrelating to each character strength.ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of Character 213WISDOM AS A FOUNDATIONALSTRENGTH AND VIRTUEFrom the ancient Greeks to the present, wisdom andliving a good life have been intimately connected.Despite cultural differences in the specifics (e.g.,Yang, 2001), wisdom is most generally understood tomean a philosophic understanding of what matters inlife and the practical knowledge of how to conduct alife that matters (Baltes & Freund, 2003b; Peterson &Seligman, 2004; Robinson, 1990). Theoretical wisdomand practical wisdom are thus wedded together andassumed to produce a happy and satisfying life. Thehappiness connected to wisdom has more to do withthe eudaimonic than with the hedonic perspective(see Chapter 4). Wisdom involves identifying and pursuingthe deeper and enduring purposes of life,beyond individual happiness. Wisdom is the ability tobalance your needs and happiness with those of others(Sternberg, 1998). Wisdom serves the commonrather than the purely individual good by finding abalance between the two. Many psychologists havecome to regard wisdom as a foundation for a life welllivedand one of humans? most important strengths(e.g., Baltes & Freund, 2003a, 2003b; Baltes, Gluck, &Kunzman, 2002; Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1990;Sternberg, 1990, 1998a).What Is Wisdom?One way to explore the meaning of wisdom is toexamine people?s everyday understanding. Each ofus has some implicit idea about wisdom, drawnfrom cultural characterizations that are embodied inexemplars of ?wise? people. Think of famous people,past and present, who exemplify your understandingof a wise person. Who comes to mind? Thetop 15 answers given by college students are shownin Table 10.3. Interestingly, along with well-knownwise people like Gandhi, Confucius, Jesus Christ,Martin Luther King, and Socrates, ?wisdom nominees?also included Oprah Winfrey and Ann Landers(Paulus, Wehr, Harms, & Strasser, 2002).This study also investigated whether peopledistinguish among wisdom, intelligence, creativity,and sheer fame by having different groups of participantsmake nominations for each of the specifiedcharacteristics. Table 10.3 shows that the nominationsfor each of the categories include a blend ofhistoric and contemporary figures. Evidence of thedifferences people perceive among wise, intelligent,creative, and just famous people was shown by thelow degree of overlap in the various nominee lists.Only one person, Oprah Winfrey, was on both thewisdom list and the intelligence list. There was nooverlap between nominees for creativity and wisdom,a 27% overlap between creative and intelligentpeople, and a 7% overlap between wisdom and creativity.People do not use pure fame or notoriety as abasis for nominating wise, creative, or intelligentpeople. Sheer fame nominees never exceeded 20%of overlap with the other three categories.To get at the specific factors that define folkwisdom, researchers have asked people to identifyStrength Topic ChapterCuriosity Five Factor Model (FFM) Chapter 9Openness to experienceLove of Learning Approach/avoidance goals Chapter 7Intrinsic/extrinsic motivationPersistence Commitment Chapter 7Persistence and self-esteem Chapter 9Integrity Autonomy Chapters 2; 7Self-determination theoryPrudence FFM?conscientiousness Chapter 9Self-regulation Self-control and regulation Chapter 8Hope Optimism/hope Chapter 9ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.214 Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of CharacterTABLE 10.3 Nominations for intelligent, creative, wise, and famous peopleIntelligent Creative Wise Sheer Fame1. Einstein Da Vinci Gandhi Princess Diana2. Bill Clinton Picasso Confucius Elvis Presley3. Da Vinci Michelangelo Jesus Christ Michael Jordan4. Prime Minister Mozart M. L. King Muhammad Ali5. Gates Spielberg Socrates Michael Jackson6. Shakespeare Shakespeare Mother Theresa Bill Clinton7. Hawking Michael Jackson Solomon Madonna8. Oprah Beethoven Buddha Wayne Gretzky9. Newton Walt Disney Pope Bill Gates10. Mozart Robin Williams Oprah Winfrey John F. Kennedy11. Edison Salvador Dali Winston Churchill Nelson Mandela12. Suzuki Madonna Dalai Lama Marilyn Monroe13. Madonna Sigmund Freud Ann Landers Adolph Hitler14. Gorbachev Alexander Graham Bell Nelson Mandela George Bush, Sr.15. Trudeau Margaret Atwood Queen Elizabeth Jesus ChristSource: Paulus, D. L., Wehr, P., Harms, P. D., & Strasser, D. H. (2002). Use of exemplars to revealimplicit types of intelligence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1051?1062. CopyrightAmerican Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission.wise behaviors and have analyzed the characteristicsof wisdom described in cultural, historical, andphilosophical writings. For example, Sternberg(1985) asked a group of college professors andlay-persons to list characteristics they associatedwith wise people. Researchers then took the top40 wisdom characteristics and asked college studentsto sort them into piles, according to ?whichbehaviors [were] likely to be found together in aperson.? Based on students? sortings, Sternbergidentified six groupings of attributes that characterizea wise person:1. Reasoning ability: Uncommon ability to lookat a problem and solve it through good logicalreasoning ability, by applying knowledge toparticular problems, by integrating informationand theories in new ways, and by possessing ahuge store of knowledge.2. Sagacity: A keen understanding of humannature, thoughtfulness, fairness, good listeningabilities, knowledge of self, and placing valueon the advice and knowledge of others.3. Learning from ideas and the environment:Places value on ideas, is perceptive, and learnsfrom others? mistakes.4. Judgment: Has good, sensible judgment at alltimes, takes a long-term rather than a short-termview, and thinks before acting and speaking.5. Expeditious use of information: Learnsand retains information from experience (bothmistakes and successes), willingness to changeone?s mind based on new experience.6. Perspicacity: Demonstrates perceptiveness,intuition, ability to see through things, readbetween the lines; and discern the truth andthe right thing to do.In his analysis of wisdom in philosophical writings,Baltes (1993) identified seven propertiesdescribing the nature of wisdom (taken from Baltes &Staudinger, 2000, Appendix A, p. 135).ISBN 1-256-51557-4Positive Psychology, by Steve R. Baumgardner and Marie K. Crothers. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright ? 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.Chapter 10 ? Virtue and Strengths of Character 2151. ?Wisdom addresses important and difficultquestions and strategies about the conduct andmeaning of life.?2. ?Wisdom includes knowledge about the limitsof knowledge and the uncertainties of theworld.?3. ?Wisdom represents a truly superior level ofknowledge, judgment, and advice.?4. ?Wisdom constitutes knowledge with extraordinaryscope, depth, measure, and balance.?5. ?Wisdom involves a perfect synergy of mindand character, that is, an orchestration ofknowledge and virtues.?6. ?Wisdom represents knowledge used for thegood or well-being of oneself and that ofothers.?7. ?Wisdom is easily recognized when manifested,although difficult to achieve and specify.?Wisdom, then, is not the same thing as technicalknowledge, ?book learning,? fame, or intelligenceas measured by an IQ test. Having lots ofeducation, being a ?smart? person, or being anexpert in a given area (like computer technologyor finance) does not by itself qualify a personas wise. Many people are clever, intelligent, orexperts in their field, but far fewer are wise.Wisdom embodies a particular kind of knowledge,intelligence, and judgment focused on the conductof a virtuous life. Wise people have learned life?smost important lessons. The broad scope of theirunderstanding includes the uncertainties of life?that is, knowing what cannot be definitivelyknown. Two prominent theories attempt to capturewisdom?s essential elements: Sternberg?s balancetheory and the work of Paul Baltes on wisdom asexpertise in the conduct of life (often referred to asthe Berlin wisdom model).Theories of WisdomBALANCE THEORY Sternberg?s balance theorydescribes the practical intelligence necessary to takewise action when confronting difficult and complexlife situations (Sternberg, 1990, 1998a). Wisdom isbased on tacit knowledge that is built up over timeas people learn how to pursue and achieve valuedgoals succe
