Overview
Whereas there has been increased attention on recreational drug use by adults across the world, little has been done to determine the effect of Covid-19 on the use of illicit drugs by young adults from the UK. Past studies have focused on drug misuse by children, yet few have investigated the same on young adults even though they are the leading drug abusers (Bennett and Holloway, 2013). Most studies on young adults investigate alcohol use with few dealing with illicit drug they abuse (Heradstveit et al., 2020). Latest statistics show that young individuals abuse class A drugs, with cannabis leading as the most abused recreational drug (Grierson 2019; Heradstveit et al., 2020). Others class A drugs include methamphetamine, ecstasy, ketamine, cocaine, LSD, and GHB. Young adults use recreational drugs to enhance their experience and for enjoyment. However, the outbreak of COVID-19 changed everything as governments initiated drastic measures to curb its spread. Restrictions on social distancing, movement, and lockdowns interfered with people’s way of life, including recreation yet there is inadequate evidence on its effect on substance use. This study seeks to address this issue by investigating how the pandemic altered recreational drug usage by young adults in England.
Background
Recreational drug use amounts to the occasional intake of illicit drugs in times of leisure and for enjoyment. Such drugs are chemical substances taken to provide pleasure improve life, and for enjoyment, not medical reasons. Most are illegal and prolonged use leads to addiction (Heradstveit et al., 2020). The majority of the countries have adopted harsher drug policies to discourage the distribution and sale of such drugs yet; users still obtain them from friends and other dealers (Gabri, Galanti, Orsini, and Magnusson, 2022). For example, Sweden implemented a vision of drug free society and enforced criminal prohibition while Spain and Netherlands semi-legalised their approaches. A report by the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime shows that drug use among young adults is higher than among older people. The report indicates that the age of 12 to 17 is a critical risk period when most adolescents start taking illicit drugs, and substance use peaks in young adults aged 18-25 (UNODC, 2018). Cannabis remains the drug of choice because it is easily available and perceived to have low risks of harm, and further use of other drugs is preceded by cannabis use (Cheeta et al., 2018; Heradstveit et al., 2020). Recreational drugs are primarily used in nightlife settings to enhance the experience and increase excitement (Wilson, Bryant, Holt, and Treloar, 2010). However, other users still abuse such drugs in private setting and at any time. Recreational drug usage across countries differs but in high-income nations, young adults use methamphetamine, ecstasy, ketamine, cocaine, LSD, and GHB (Gabri, Galanti, Orsini, and Magnusson, 2022; Grierson, 2019). The use of such substances is decriminalised in most countries as governments adopt harsher policies to dissuade users from abusing the drugs. However, according to Gabri, Galanti, Orsini, and Magnusson (2022), increased legislation and harsher policies do not lead to a decline in the abuse; instead, they lead to an increase in the use of drugs like cannabis. Determining changes in illicit drug use can be challenging because trends change rapidly because of different factors like availability, attitudes, and harm perception towards abusing drugs (Heradstveit et al., 2020). Such factors can influence the determination of changes in recreational drug use by young adults in the UK. Similarly, the motive for using recreational drugs can vary significantly across gender, with data from the office of national statistics showing that more men use drugs than women (ONS, 2020). Studies show that adolescents are at risk of abusing drugs because they are learning new things. Their brain controls are inadequately developed; thus, they are easily influenced by friends and family to abuse drugs, which gives them immediate gratification. The situation continues into early adulthood. The latest statistics by different government agencies like National Health Services and Office of National Statistics show that drug abuse by young adults is the highest, with men abusing drugs more than women. For example, the NHS (2019a) shows that 24% of adolescents abuse drugs and the number of young adults could be higher. Similarly, ONS (2020) showed that 21% of young adults had abused drugs in the past year. Again, more young adults are now using class A drugs for recreational purposes, raising concern over addiction and deteriorating personal health (Grierson, 2019). When the UK government instituted, measures to contain the pandemic, adolescents and young adults who had started using drugs are likely to look for new suppliers if they could not get the drugs from their dealers or change to readily available drugs. However, some might have adjusted by stopping drug abuse because the –pandemic affected social gatherings; thus, the peer pressure to use drugs is no longer there. Instead, the young adults are now with a new social support group like family, discouraging them from abusing drugs.
Statement of the Problem
Drug abuse accounts for a significant proportion of disease burden across nations. However, little research has been done on the distribution of recreational drug use among young adults in the UK. Similarly, prevalence across gender varies, yet no studies have investigated this issue. Still, the rate of recreational drug use varies considerably across cities and neighbourhoods in the UK with statistics showing that 21% of young adults aged 16-24 have taken drugs in 2019 (ONS, 2020). The declaration of COVID-19 as pandemic and subsequent measures by the UK government to counter the spread of COVID-19 interfered with free movement, social gathering, and interactions, which could affect abuse of recreational drugs by young adults. Similarly, the closure of most entertainment joints, including bars during the pandemic, affected leisure time and enjoyment, which could have an effect on recreational drug use. Still, the pandemic disrupted the supply chain meaning that dealers and other vendors experienced shortages in some recreational drugs. However, there are inadequate or no studies to substantiate these claims. There is a need to conduct further studies to determine if young adults took more recreational drugs during the pandemic r whether there was a decline in the use.
Aim
This paper will investigate how COVID-19 has changed recreational drug use among young adults in the UK.
Research Objectives
- To determine the prevalence of recreational drug use by young adults before and during the pandemic.
- To determine change in recreational drugs across gender during the pandemic.
- To determine the type of recreational drugs used by young adults before and during the pandemic.
- To establish whether COVID-19 containment measures had any effect on recreational drug use by young adults in England.
Significance of the Study
This study will provide insightful information for understanding the impact of COVID-19 on recreational drug use by young adults in England. It will shed light on how the containment measures contributed to a change in recreational drug use, thus informing policy decisions that can reverse the situation. For example, suppose the findings show that there was an increase in recreational drug use. In that case, the researcher can use this study to investigate reasons for such increases and recommend appropriate solutions to reverse increased recreational drug use. Similarly, if it appears that there was a decline in recreational drug use, policymakers can use these findings to formulate new policies and take relevant action to ensure further reduction. The study will further inform decisions on whether law enforcement agencies should pursue incriminating measures to slow recreational drug use or take a passive approach like engaging youths and young adults to dissuade them from using such drugs. Similarly, the study will shed light on why young adults use recreational drugs and the types of drugs they abuse, including gender distribution. This information will be helpful for future research and will also be instrumental to policymakers. Lastly, the study will recommend the best approaches to reduce recreational drug use by young adults, including identifying areas for further research.
Outline of the Study
This study will include an introduction consisting of the background, statement of the probe, aim, research questions, objectives, significance delimitations, and study’s limitations. It will also include a literature review broken down into different subheadings like key statistics, drug abuse by gender, comparison between the UK and other European nations, and research gaps. Lastly, the paper presents the research methodology, including the design, philosophy, approach, data collection and analysis, ethical issues, and methodological limitations.
Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature on recreational drug use by young adults during the pandemic. It presents key statistics from government agencies like the Office of National Statistics, National Health Services, research studies, and other publications. Similarly, the review deals with the impact of COVID-19 containment measures on drug use recreational drug use across gender and compares England with other European nations. The review further identifies gaps for future studies. The review provides new insight for understanding the phenomenon and determining the direction for this study.
Prevalence of Recreational Drug Use
Recreation drug use among young adults in England is not a new phenomenon. It is an issue that has received significant attention, whereas, in the 1990s, the concept of normalisation was developed to analyse and explain the unprecedented increase in recreational drugs like cannabis, ecstasy, and amphetamine by young Britons (Wilson, Bryant, Holt, and Treloar, 2010). Normalisation is characterised by enhanced positive attitudes and awareness by young adults towards illicit drugs. A coincidence of positive attitude with increased availability leads to higher rates of experimentation and use to the extent that abuse is regarded as normalised (Wilson, Bryant, Holt, and Treloar). Over time, drug use by young adults has increased, with the latest data from National Health Services showing that 24% of adolescents had ever taken drugs, with the likelihood of abusing drugs increasing with age. Statistics further show that cannabis is the most abused drug, with respondents saying that it is easy to get it from friends of the same age and drug dealers (NHS, 2019a). Data from the Office of National Statistics collaborates these statistics noting that 1 in 11 adults aged 16-59, equivalent to 3.2 million people, had abused a drug in the last year. 21% of adults aged 16-24 years had taken a drug in the previous year, a figure equivalent to 2018 when 20% of young adults abused drugs (ONS, 2020). However, data from National Health Services shows that drug abuse among young adults increased from 14.6% in 2014 to an all-high figure of 24.3% in 2016 before declining slightly to 23.7% in 2018. However, the high figure in 2016 was attributed to the inclusion of nitrous oxide and NPS after the adoption of the Psychoactive Substance Act 2016. Removal of psychoactive substances leads to a 3% reduction in drug prevalence from 24.3% to 21.3% (NHS, 2019b). In another study by the University College London, a tenth of young adults aged 17 years have used hard drugs, with a third having tried cannabis (Barnes, 2021). Hamilton (2021) estimates the UK illicit drug trade market to be £9.4 a year, with the associated social and criminal damage costing the society an estimated £19 billion each year. Such figures show the scale of the illicit drug trade, which is affecting more than 3 million people annually, with the majority being young adults. Grierson (2019) supports this statement noting that 550,000 or 8.7% of young adults had taken class A drug in 2018, the highest compared to previous years. However, there are no statistics showing the prevalence of drug use during the pandemic. The existing studies on addiction dealt with alcohol consumption and established an increase in its uptake during the pandemic. For example, Schmidt et al. (2021) conducted a systematic review and established that there was an increase in alcohol intake in the initial months of the pandemic. However, the review did not identify any study that dealt with class A drugs which is the focus of this paper. A report by United Nation Office on Drugs showed that the pandemic accelerated drug trafficking patterns where dealers use large shipment size, resorted to increased use of private aircrafts and waterway routes and established contactless methods of delivering drugs. Opiate and coca leaf production and synthetic drug manufacture remained unaffected during the pandemic. Further, the report noted that the pandemic disrupted critical services for preventing the adverse effects of drugs in 65% of reporting countries (UNODC, 2021). Based on these findings, it is evident that drug use during the pandemic continued unabated despite the disruptions caused by restrictions on movement and lockdowns. However, there are no studies on the effect of drug use by young adults. Similarly, the findings apply to different countries with no specific attention given to the UK.
The lack of comparative statistics on pre-pandemic and during the pandemic drug use by young adults calls for more studies to determine if there was any change. Statistics by NHS (2019a), ONS (2020), Grierson (2019), Barnes (2021) among others shows that drug use is prevalent in young adults aged 18-24, with the majority using class A drugs for recreational purposes. Drug use across gender and residency varies, with men abusing illicit drugs more than women (NHS, 2019b; ONS, 2020). Similarly, there are variations in geographical areas, with most recreational drug use taking place in urban areas. A study by Crew (2020) showed that participants mainly from the UK and Europe did not notice any changes in the supply of drugs when COVID-19 was confined to China, but the situation changed when the pandemic spread to Europe, and 62.1% of the respondents noticed a change in supply. Most of the participants in this study, 67%, were filling for themselves and pointed out that they obtained the drugs from a dealer, friend, or family member. Similarly, 14% obtained drugs from the dark web, while 3% used social media (Crew, 2020). The pandemic might have changed the relatively stable overall level of drug use reported by ONS (2020) and NHS (2019a) by interfering with the supply chain or encouraging more young adults to use class A drugs. For example, the 2021 drug report by the United Nation Officer on Drug Control shows that there was an increase in intercepted shipments of cocaine and heroin during the pandemic while dealers changed to novel ways of distributing drugs (UNODC, 2021). Such interference changed drug use by young adults but the long-term effects are unknown. For example, dealers might have adapted quickly to new approaches of delivering drugs circumventing the strict COVID-19 containment measures. Again, the pandemic might have increased access to the drug through secure settings where young adults abuse medical drugs.
Changes in Drug use among Young Adults
Research on changes in drugs among young adults can rely on theories of addiction, which identify the mechanisms that explain behaviour in users. According to Newton et al. (2009), such theories use preclinical data because they enhance research into the neural mechanisms, which cannot be the case using human subjects. Shafiee, Razaghi, and Vedadhir (2019) reinforce this statement, noting that theories are derived from documentation, information, ad evidence from studies. The theories deal with positive reinforcement or pleasure-seeking, negative reinforcement or pain avoidance, incentive salience, stimulus-response learning, and inhibitory control dysfunction (Newton et al., 2009). Theories of drug use can inform decisions on drug prevention and treatment (Mosher and Akins, 2013). An understanding of the theories will provide new insight into changes in drug use among young adults during the pandemic.
Theories of Drug Use
Different theories apply to substance use and abuse, with some applying to all drugs while others are focused on particular drugs or patterns. General theories expound on the experimental, occasional, and heavy users of different drugs. However, such theories may be empirically valid under some situations and not others (Mosher and Akins, 2013). Notable general theories addressed in this section include nature theories, genetic/biological theories, disease theories, psychological theories, and sociological theories. According to West, Marsden, and Hastings (2019), using a single conceptual framework or model is unrealistic and likely to affect critical discourse. It implies that researchers should formulate formal ontologies to present knowledge clearly and coherently and enable linkages across disciplinary approaches. Multiple perspectives are desirable in the study of drug abuse because they allow researchers to uniquely identify a construct. Based on this argument, a discussion of the theories can provide insight for understanding the effect of COVID-19 on recreational drug use by young adults.
Nature Theories
Nature theories proposed by Andrew Weil posit that the desire to use drugs is an innate and universal drive. It argues that people engage in behaviour that alters their consciousness from infancy. Infants rocking themselves, blissful state and children purposefully hyperventilating or spinning themselves manifest consciousness alteration at infancy (Mosher and Akins, 2013). Young adults use drugs to alter consciousness. However, critics argue that people change consciousness in other non-drug ways like through meditation, risk-taking behaviour, intense physical activity, fasting, and self-inflicted pain; thus, drug use should not necessarily be perceived as pathological or bad because altering consciousness is present in all humans (Cardena and Winkelman, 2011). Similarly, people transit through different states of consciousness even while awake and will exhibit different levels of cognition, behaviour, and emotion; thus, what applies in one state might not be the case in another. Using this theory, researchers can understand how young adults alter their consciousness even during the pandemic and its effect on drug use.
Genetic/Biological Theories
These theories suggest that individuals likely to abuse or use a substance and become addicted are affected by genetically inherited predispositions. According to Teesson, Degenhardt, and Hall (2014), genetic or biological theories look at individual differences and changes in one’s brain that can lead to drug use. Users inherit an enhanced probability of drug dependence, and in most cases, researchers examine family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies to determine vulnerability levels. West, Marsden, and Hastings (2019) add to this by stating that people likely to use drugs are characterised by inherited predisposition. Such theories focus on hereditary or genetics to explain why people use drugs and that inherited characteristics affect how users experience the effect or metabolise drugs. The biological makeup of an individual affects their experiences of substance use in different ways, like feeling unpleasant rather than good if high doses cause sickness and the level of anxiety following drug use. Potenza (2013) reinforces this argument by stating that young adults are likely to abuse drugs because specific parts of their brains, particularly those responsible for behaviour control, mature more slowly than those involved in enhancing motivated behaviour like drug use. West, Marsden, and Hastings (2019) expound on sensitisation or incentive-sensitisation theory genetic or biological theories noting that addictive drugs are likely to alter brain functioning through the adaptive process. The altered brain is responsible for incentive motivation and reward. The changes render the system hypersensitive to drugs and associated stimuli, and the sensitised system does not interfere with how users perceive pleasure.
Disease Theory
The model takes drug abuse or addiction as a disease and is best described with the moral model of addiction. According to Volkow, Koob, and McLellan (2016), drug use and addiction is a disease that occurs gradually, with its onset being a particular risk period like adolescence. The model sees drug use as a sign of weak moral character or bad behaviour. It assumes that drug abuse is the fault of the user. The perspective has similarities with the genetic theories because it emphasises inherited factors in the aetiology of substance use. However, others stress the psychological process. The disease theory tends to phrase the discussion in medical terms and contends that drug use should be viewed the same as a traditional medical issue (Teesson, Degenhardt, and Hall, 2014). Drug use starts at a risky period, particularly during adolescence when the brain is sensitive to drugs, thus increasing adolescents’ likelihood of drug experimentation. Racine, Sattler, and Escande (2017) expound on this argument noting that drug use and addiction is a brain disease arising from the dysfunction of the brain system responsible for reward and pleasure-seeking. Based on this theory, drug use by young adults is like a disease, and the outbreak of the pandemic will not dissuade them from substance use; instead, they will continue abusing drugs despite government restrictions to counter the spread of the pandemic.
Psychological Theories
Psychological theories tend to focus on the role of reinforcement and punishment or dysfunctional personality types or characteristics. For example, self-derogation theory assumes that substance use is an outcome of personality defect and inadequacy, while problem behaviour theory views abuse as a sign of problem behaviour patterns likely to cause difficulties of functioning in society. The self-derogation theory postulates that drug abuse arises from a lack of self-esteem and self-rejection. A user behaves in a way that maximises their experiences positively to self-esteem and reduces or minimises ones that damage their esteem (West, Marsden, and Hastings, 2019). Drug use is likely to affect individuals who lack a positive self-image from their interactions with friends and family. People with negative experiences with conventional others develop deviant behaviour like drug abuse because they seek positive and rewarding responses from others. Lack of positive affirmation forces individuals to pursue a different identity and are likely to engage in deviant behaviour like drug use in search of self-esteem and positive affirmation (Teesson, Degenhardt, and Hall, 2014). However, critics argue that it is challenging to reconcile self-rejection because drugs users are likely to have more close friends than non-users. They argue that a sub-cultural perspective can address this shortcoming because people who cannot meet societal expectations are likely to seek deviant subcultures or groups that pursue alternative values. Similarly, youths who are negatively perceived by their peers adopt deviant persona because they suffer in terms of their self-esteem. On the other hand, the behavioural theory focuses on observable behaviour maintained by the consequences (West, Marsden, and Hastings, 2019). Using the psychological theory, researchers can examine how the pandemic affects or reinforces self-esteem and its effect on defiance. Measures to contain the pandemic might disrupt the bond drug users share and, in some instances, foster self-esteem when users receive positive reinforcement from family or new friends (Ross, Potter, Barratt, and Aldridge, 2020). The pandemic might encourage them to avoid drug abuse in such a case. However, it can be challenging to discontinue from subcultures. Drug users are likely to maintain connections with their peers despite the lockdowns and restrictions on movement, including sharing information on where or how to get drugs or alternatives.
Research Gaps
The literature reviewed shows that there are no studies on the effect of COVID-19 on recreational drug use by young adults in the UK. The existing studies have focused on abuse by adolescents at a higher risk of drug use because of their brain development and search for positive reinforcement (Barnes, 2021). However, no survey has investigated how the pandemic has affected drug use in England. Outside England, existing studies have not grouped the participants into their respective ages. Similarly, they have not considered gender issues and ethnic backgrounds. Additionally, they have used selected drugs like cannabis, leaving other recreational substances used by young adults (Gabri, Galanti, Orsini, and Magnusson, 2022). This study seeks to fill these gaps by investigating changes in recreational drug use among young adults in England.
Research Questions
- Has the Covid-19 pandemic led to a change in recreational drug use amongst young adults in England?
- Are there gender differences in recreational drug use during the pandemic?
- What Covid-19 related factors have affected recreational drug use the most?
